INFORME: La falacia de los combustibles fósiles - Cómo la carrera por el gas en África fracasará en proporcionar el desarrollo
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49. Ibid.
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54. African Union & African Energy Commission, ‘Natural Gas in the African Energy Landscape’, (2021), https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/41078- doc-1_Natural_Gas_in_the_African_Energy_ Landscape_25-10-21.pdf
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56. Data taken from Rystad Energy, (2022), https://www. rystadenergy.com/
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61. African Energy Chamber, ‘The State of African Energy: Q2 2022’, (2022), AEC, https://energychamber.org/wp- content/uploads/2AEC-Q2-2022-OUTLOOK.pdf
62. Ibid.
63. African Union & African Energy Commission, ‘Natural Gas in the African Energy Landscape’, (2021), https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/41078- doc-1_Natural_Gas_in_the_African_Energy_ Landscape_25-10-21.pdf
64. Ibid .
65. Nakhle, C., ‘North Africa’s natural gas: no panacea for the EU’, (2022), GIS, https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/ natural-gas/
66. Eni, ‘Zohr: the giant offshore field in Egypt’, (n.d), https:// http://www.eni.com/en-IT/operations/egypt-zohr.html
67. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. Ibid.
72. Ibid.
73 . Ibid.
74. Ibid.
75. African Union & African Energy Commission, ‘Natural Gas in the African Energy Landscape’, (2021), https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/41078- doc-1_Natural_Gas_in_the_African_Energy_ Landscape_25-10-21.pdf
76. Nakhle, C., ‘North Africa’s natural gas: no panacea for the EU’, (2022), GIS, https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/ natural-gas/
77. Ibid.
78. African Union & African Energy Commission, ‘Natural Gas in the African Energy Landscape’, (2021), https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/41078- doc-1_Natural_Gas_in_the_African_Energy_ Landscape_25-10-21.pdf
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
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84. UN, 2022, ‘2022 Revision of World Population Prospects’, UN, https://population.un.org/wpp/
85. Ibid.
86. IEA, ‘Africa Energy Outlook 2022’, (2022), https://www. iea.org/reports/africa-energy-outlook-2022/key-findings
87. Alova, G. et al., ‘A machine-learning approach to predicting Africa’s electricity mix based on planned power plants and their chances of success’, (2021), Nature Energy, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-020- 00755-9
88. Ibid.
89. African Union & African Energy Commission, ‘Natural Gas in the African Energy Landscape’, (2021), https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/41078- doc-1_Natural_Gas_in_the_African_Energy_ Landscape_25-10-21.pdf
90. Ibid .
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.
93. IPCC, ‘Climate Change 2022 – Mitigation of Climate Change’, (2022), IPCC, https://doi. org/10.1201/9781003264705-7
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96. IEA, ‘SDG7, Data Tool’, https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7- data-and-projections/access-to-electricity
97. Ibid.
98. IRENA, ‘Tracking SDG7: The Energy Progress Report’, (2021), https://www.irena.org/publications/2021/Jun/ Tracking-SDG-7-2021
99. Ouedraogo, N., ‘Modeling sustainable long-term electricity supply-demand in Africa’, (2017), Applied Energy, 190, 1047-1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. apenergy.2016.12.162
100. IEA, ‘SDG7, Data Tool’, https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7- data-and-projections/access-to-electricity
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Ibid.
104. Ibid.
105. World Bank Blogs, “Putting Africa on the path to universal electricity access’, (2022), World Bank, https:// blogs.worldbank.org/energy/putting-africa-path- universal-electricity-access
106. World Bank, ‘Nigeria to Improve Electricity Access and Services to Citizens’, (2021), World Bank, https://www. worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/02/05/ nigeria-to-improve-electricity-access-and-services-to- citizens
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108. Ibid.
109. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
110. Ibid.
111. Ibid.
112. Bassy, M. & Lemos, A., ‘Africa’s Fossil-Fuel Trap’, (2022), Foreign Affairs, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/ africa/2022-02-17/africas-fossil-fuel-trap
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130. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
131. IRENA, ‘Renewable Energy Market Analysis: Africa and its Regions’, (2022), IRENA, https://www.irena.org/ publications/2022/Jan/Renewable-Energy-Market- Analysis-Africa
132. Ibid.
133. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
134. Ibid.
135. IRENA, ‘Africa 2030: Roadmap for a Renewable Energy Future’, (2015), IRENA, http://www.irena.org/remap
136. AfDB, ‘Estimating Investment Needs for the Power Sector in Africa 2016-2025’, (2019), https://www.afdb.org/ en/documents/estimating-investment-needs-power- sector-africa-2016-2025
137. IRENA, ‘Bracing for climate impact: renewables as a climate change adaptation strategy’, (2021), IRENA, https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/ Publication/2021/Aug/IRENA_Bracing_for_climate_ impact_2021.pdf
138. Ibid .
139. Ibid.
140. Banktrack et al., ‘Locked out of a Just Transition: Fossil Fuel Financing in Africa’, (2022), BankTrack, https:// http://www.banktrack.org/download/locked_out_of_a_just_ transition_fossil_fuel_financing_in_africa/07_md_ banktrack_fossil_fuels_africa_rpt_hr_1.pdf
141. Ibid.
142. Ibid.
143. Ibid.
144. Dordi et al., ‘Ten financial actors can accelerate a transition away from fossil fuels’ (2022), Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.eist.2022.05.006
145. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
146. Woodside, ‘Socio-Economic Impact Review’, (2021), https://www.woodside.com/docs/default-source/ current-consultation-activities/senegal-activities/sne- field-development-phase-1-socio-economic-impact- overview.pdf?sfvrsn=ac96853c_16
147. Ibid.
148. NS Energy, ‘Greater Tortue Ahmeyim LNG Project’, https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/projects/greater- tortue-ahmeyim-lng-project/
149. Carmen, ‘Sangomar Phase 2 Conventional Oil Field, Senegal’, (2022), Offshore Technology, https://www. offshore-technology.com/marketdata/sangomar-phase- 2-conventional-oil-field-senegal/
150. NS Energy, ‘Greater Tortue Ahmeyim LNG Project’, https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/projects/greater- tortue-ahmeyim-lng-project/ 55 56
151. Anwar, M. et al., ‘Natural Gas in Africa Amid a Global Low-Carbon Energy Transition’, (2022), The African Climate Foundation, https://africanclimatefoundation. org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/ACF-GAS-REPORT- 2.0-African-Landscape-Final-Web.pdf
152. Instituto Nacional de Petróleo, ‘Natural Gas Production’, (n.d.), http://www.inp.gov.mz/en/Exploration- Production/Production
153. Instituto Nacional de Petróleo, ‘Natural Gas Production’, (n.d.), http://www.inp.gov.mz/en/Exploration- Production/Production
154. World Bank Data, ‘Access to electricity – Mozambique’, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS. ZS?locations=MZ
155. Renshaw, J. & Chestney, N., ‘U.S., EU strike LNG deal as Europe seeks to cut Russian gas’, Reuters, https://www. reuters.com/business/energy/us-eu-strike-lng-deal- europe-seeks-cut-russian-gas-2022-03-25/
156. Tully, S., ‘A new EU partnership could triple U.S. exports of liquified natural gas’, (2022), Fortune, https://fortune. com/2022/03/26/eu-us-partnership-liquified-natural- gas-export-lng/
157. Reuters, ‘Qatar’s LNG production capacity to reach 126 mln T a year by 2027, says Emir’, (2022), Reuters, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/qatars-lng- production-capacity-reach-126-mln-t-year-by-2027- says-emir-2022-02-22/
158. Wang, H., & Perkins, R., ‘Qatar boosts LNG expansion plans with new ‘mega trains’’, (2019), S&P Global, https:// http://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market- insights/latest-news/natural-gas/112519-qatar-boosts- lng-expansion-production-target-of-126-million-mt-yr- by-2027
159. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
160. IEA, ‘World Energy Employment’, (2022), IEA, https:// http://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-employment
161. Pai et al., ‘Meeting well-below 2°C target would increase energy sector jobs globally, (2021), One Earth, https:// http://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(21)00347-X
162. Banktrack et al., ‘Locked out of a Just Transition: Fossil Fuel Financing in Africa’, (2022), BankTrack, https:// http://www.banktrack.org/download/locked_out_of_a_just_ transition_fossil_fuel_financing_in_africa/07_md_ banktrack_fossil_fuels_africa_rpt_hr_1.pdf
163. Ibid.
164. UN Women & AfDB, ‘Green Jobs for Women in Africa’, (2021), UN, https://africa.unwomen.org/sites/ default/files/Field%20Office%20Africa/Attachments/ Publications/2021/11/20211206_UN%20Women_ Green%20Jobs_report_ENG%20webpages.pdf
165. Ovadia, J., ‘Local content policies and petro- development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A comparative analysis’, (2016), Resources Policy, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.04.003
166. Climate Action Tracker, ‘Natural gas in Africa: Why fossil fuels cannot sustainably meet the continent’s growing energy demand’, (2022), CAT, https:// climateactiontracker.org/publications/natural-gas-in- africa-why-fossil-fuels-cannot-sustainably-meet-the- continents-growing-energy-demand/
167. Ibid.
168. Finer & Orta-Martínez, ‘A second hydrocarbon boom threatens the Peruvian Amazon: trends, projections, and policy implications’, (2010), Environmental Research, https://iopscience.iop.org/ article/10.1088/1748-9326/5/1/014012
169. Agbagwa & Ndukwu, ‘Oil and Gas Pipeline Construction- Induced Forest Fragmentation and Biodiversity Loss in the Niger Delta, Nigeria’, (2014), Natural Resources, DOI:10.4236/nr.2014.512061
170. Ibid.
171. Daley, F. & Lawrie, C., ‘Fuelling Failure: How coal, oil and gas sabotage all seventeen Sustainable Development Goals’, (2022), https://static1.squarespace.com/ static/5dd3cc5b7fd99372fbb04561/t/629621606337cb27 79a632f9/1654006125016/FFN_MVSA003+Report+-+Fos sil+Fuels+vs.+the+Sustainable+Development+Goals_V4- FA-Screen-Single.pdf
172. Di Iorio & Clark, ‘Exposure to seismic survey alters blue whale acoustic communication’, (2010), Biology Letters, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0651
173. PricewaterhouseCoopers, ‘Harnessing the Economic Potential of Cassava production in Nigeria’, (2020), PwC, https://www.pwc.com/ng/en/assets/pdf/cassava- production-nigeria-report-2020.pdf
174. JA! & Friends of the Earth Mozambique, ‘The Impacts of the LNG Industry in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique’, (2020), https://www.banktrack.org/download/the_impacts_ of_the_lng_industry_in_cabo_delgado_mozambique/ impacts_of_lng_in_mozambique_by_ja.pdf
175. Ibid.
176. Diedhiou et al., ‘A synopsis of economic and management performance of the Senegalese deep- water pink shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) fishery’, (2019), International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, https://www.fisheriesjournal.com/archives/2019/ vol7issue3/PartB/7-3-12-626.pdf
177. Chemonics International & USAID, ‘Subsector Assessment of the Nigerian Shrimp and Prawn Industry’, https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY677.pdf
178. Global Energy Monitor, ‘Nigeria-Morocco Gas Pipeline’, https://www.gem.wiki/Nigeria-Morocco_Gas_Pipeline 179. Clowes, W., ‘Nigeria-Morocco Pipeline Inches Toward Providing Gas to Europe’, (2022), Bloomberg, https:// http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-09-15/nigeria- morocco-pipeline-inches-toward-providing-gas-to- europe
180. Kallanish Energy News, ‘Nigeria-Morocco pipeline to face considerable challenges: Fitch’, (2019), https:// http://www.kallanishenergy.com/2019/01/17/nigeria-morocco- pipeline-to-face-considerable-challenges-fitch/
181. Mulyungi, P., ‘Nigeria-Morocco Gas Pipeline Project and all you need to know’, (2022), Construction Review Online, https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/ nigeria-morocco-gas-pipeline-nmgp-project-updates/ 182. Kirichenko et al., ‘Ecotoxicological assessment of underwater welding impact during the construction of marine pipelines’, (2020), DOI: 10.1201/9781003164395-27.
183. Patin, S. ‘Environmental Impact of the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry’, (1999), Ecomonitor Pub, 978-0967183602.
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186. Ibid.
187. Ibid. 188. Paltan et al., ‘Global implications of 1.5C and 2C warmer worlds on extreme river flows’, (2018), Environmental Research Letters.
189. IPCC, ‘Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’, (2022), IPCC, https://www. ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group- ii/
190. Wodon et al., ‘Missed Opportunities: The High Cost Of Not Educating Girls’, (2018), https://openknowledge. worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/29956/ HighCostOfNotEducatingGirls.pdf
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192. WHO, ‘Africa faces rising climate-linked health emergencies’, (2022), WHO, https://www.afro.who. int/news/africa-faces-rising-climate-linked-health- emergencies
193. Ibid. 194. WHO, ‘Malaria’, (n.d), https://www.who.int/news-room/ fact-sheets/detail/malaria
195. Ryan et al., ‘Shifting transmission risk for malaria in Africa with climate change: a framework for planning and intervention’, (2020), Malaria Journal, 19(1). https:// doi.org/10.1186/s12936-020-03224-6
196. Elliot et al., ‘A systematic evaluation of chemicals in hydraulic fracturing fluids and wastewater for reproductive and developmental toxicity’, Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, (2016), https://www.nature.com/articles/jes201581
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198. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
199. WWF, ‘Huge new Ramsar site declared in Mozambique’, (2015), https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?256124/Huge- new-Ramsar-site–declared-in-Mozambique
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201. Ramos et al., ‘Deep-Sea Ecosystems Off Mauritania: Research of Marine Biodiversity and Habitats in the Northwest African Margin’, (2017), https://doi. org/10.1007/978-94-024-1023-5
202. Unearthed, ‘BP’s big new gas plans in West Africa pose climate and biodiversity threats’, (2021), Unearthed, https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2021/06/21/bp-gas- west-africa-senegal-mauritania-coral-reef/
203. Daley, F. & Lawrie, C., ‘Fuelling Failure: How coal, oil and gas sabotage all seventeen Sustainable Development Goals’, (2022), https://static1.squarespace.com/ static/5dd3cc5b7fd99372fbb04561/t/629621606337cb27 79a632f9/1654006125016/FFN_MVSA003+Report+-+Fos sil+Fuels+vs.+the+Sustainable+Development+Goals_V4- FA-Screen-Single.pdf
204. Amaize, E. & Onuegbu, C., ‘Nigeria: Pain, Tears of Oil Exploitation – Gas Flare, Acid Rain Still Haunt Niger Delta’, (2018), All Africa, https://allafrica.com/ stories/201804060107.html
205. CDC, ‘Reproductive Health: Preterm Birth’, https://www. cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/ pretermbirth.html
206. Forsey and Bessonova, ‘5 Ways Reducing Pollution Can Improve Equality for Women’, (2020), SEI, https:// http://www.sei.org/featured/5-ways-reducing-pollution-can- improve-equality-forwomen/
207. Fisher et al., ‘Air pollution and development in Africa: impacts on health, the economy, and human capital’, (2021), The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(10), e681-e688. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00201-1
208. Ibid.
209. Vohra et al., ‘Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem’, (2021), Environmental Research, 195, 110754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.110754
210. Lelieveld et al., ‘Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate’, (2019), Earth, Atmosphere and Planetary Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819989116
211. CIEL, ‘Plastic & Climate: The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet’, (2019), CIEL, https://www.ciel.org/ plasticandclimate/
212. OECD, ‘Global Plastics Outlook: Policy Scenarios to 2060’, (2022), OECD, https://www.oecd.org/environment/ plastics/
213. Tabuchi et al., ‘Big Oil Is in Trouble. Its Plan: Flood Africa With Plastic’, (2020), New York Times, https://www. nytimes.com/2020/08/30/climate/oil-kenya-africa- plastics-trade.html 214. Ibid.
215. World Atlas, ‘Countries Putting The Most Plastic Waste Into The Oceans’, (n.d), https://www.worldatlas.com/ articles/countries-putting-the-most-plastic-waste-into- the-oceans.html 57 58
216. Babayemi et al., ‘Ensuring sustainability in plastics use in Africa: consumption, waste generation, and projections,’ (2019), Environmental Sciences Europe, 31(1). https://doi. org/10.1186/s12302-019-0254-5
217. Susanti et al., ‘Microplastics and the Impact of Plastic on Wildlife: A Literature Review’, (2020), IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, https:// iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/528/1/012013/ meta
218. ClientEarth, ‘Is plastic affecting the ocean as a carbon sink? We ask Tatiana Luján’, (2021), https://www. clientearth.org/latest/latestupdates/opinions/is-plastic- affecting-the-ocean-as-a-carbon-sinkwe-ask-tatiana- lujan/.
219. CIEL, ‘Plastic & Climate: The Hidden Costs of a Plastic Planet’, (2019), CIEL, https://www.ciel.org/ plasticandclimate/ 220. Observatory of Economic Complexity Database.
221. Nigeria facts and figures, annual statistical bulletin 2021, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries.
222. Onyekwena, C., & Ekeruche, M., ‘Understanding the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the Nigerian economy’, (2020), Brookings, https://www.brookings. edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2020/04/08/understanding- the-impact-of-the-covid-19-outbreak-on-the-nigerian- economy/
223. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf 224. Ibid .
225. Ibid.
226. McKinsey & Co, ‘The future of African oil and gas: Positioning for the energy transition’, (2022), Mckinsey & Co, https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and- gas/our-insights/the-future-of-african-oil-and-gas- positioning-for-the-energy-transition
227. Tucker & Reisch, ‘The Sky’s Limit Africa: The Case for a just energy transition from fossil fuel production in Africa’, (2021), OCI, http://priceofoil.org/content/ uploads/2021/10/Skys-Limit-Africa-Report-2021.pdf
228. Selassie, A., & Kovacs, P., ‘Africa Faces New Shock as War Raises Food and Fuel Costs’, (2022), IMF, https://www. imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2022/04/28/blog-africa-faces- new-shock-as-war-raises-food-fuel-costs
229. Dwumfour, R., & Ntow-Gyamfi, M., ‘Natural resources, financial development and institutional quality in Africa: Is there a resource curse?’, (2018), Resources Policy, 59, 411-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2018.08.012
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236. Ibid.
237. Carré et al., ‘Climate change, migrations, and the peopling of sine-Saloum mangroves (Senegal) in the past 6000 years’, (2022), Quaternary Science Reviews, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107688
238. Hardy et al., ‘Shellfishing and shell midden construction in the Saloum Delta, Senegal’, (2016), Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jaa.2015.11.001
239. Vousdoukas, M., et al., ‘African heritage sites threatened as sea-level rise accelerates.’, (2022), Nature Climate Change, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01280-1
240. Ibid.
241. Ibid .
242. Ibid .
243. JA! & Friends of the Earth Mozambique, ‘The Impacts of the LNG Industry in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique’, (2020), https://www.banktrack.org/download/the_impacts_ of_the_lng_industry_in_cabo_delgado_mozambique/ impacts_of_lng_in_mozambique_by_ja.pdf 244. Ibid.
245. Save the Children, ‘‘NO END IN SIGHT’ AS RENEWED VIOLENCE IN MOZAMBIQUE’S CABO DELGADO SPARKS YEAR-HIGH NUMBER OF CHILDREN TO FLEE’, (2022), https://www.savethechildren.net/news/no-end- sight-renewed-violence-mozambique-s-cabo-delgado- sparks-year-high-number-children-flee
246. DTM Mozambique, https://dtm.iom.int/mozambique
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248. IDMC, ‘2021 Global Report on Internal Displacement’, (2021), https://www.internal-displacement.org/sites/ default/files/publications/documents/grid2021_idmc. pdf#page=16?v=2
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260. IEA, ‘Africa Energy Outlook 2022’, (2022), https://www. iea.org/reports/africa-energy-outlook-2022/key-findings
261. Daley, F. & Lawrie, C., ‘Fuelling Failure: How coal, oil and gas sabotage all seventeen Sustainable Development Goals’, (2022), https://static1.squarespace.com/ static/5dd3cc5b7fd99372fbb04561/t/629621606337cb27 79a632f9/1654006125016/FFN_MVSA003+Report+-+Fos sil+Fuels+vs.+the+Sustainable+Development+Goals_V4- FA-Screen-Single.pdf
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